clear thinking
Thinking and memory
All thinking manipulates memories. Even inspirations are show on your experience and nothing else. All memories are more or less distorted. Your brain registers experience differently from everybody else's.
Abstract and concrete
First, I'll describe "concrete" objects, which refer to things having a material integrity, for example a "chair." A concrete object may be specific, but not abstract. For example, "my chair is blue and differs from your red chair." A concrete word's meaning doesn't vary with the language you use. A "chair" is a "chair" regardless of what country you are in. And though the American John Doe is called Johannes Hertzel in Germany, he's the same person. Numbers, dates and calendar words are all concrete words as are gender words or words that point to one specific person (I, you, he, she, your, his, her). All word forms made more specific by a concrete word are also concrete, such as "Joe's idea," though "idea" is an abstract word.
Abstract ideas come by removing a content from its context or background leaving one to focus on something that was not before seen. These ideas must include two or more memories having some commonality or similarity.
All other words are abstract. Ex. (concrete words put in italics) You've heard it said that we must protect our freedom lest it be lost. ... For freedom isn't delicate — it's a tough, old bird. Freedom has always been, and is today, the source of America's strength.
Abstract concepts are powerful tools for thinking as long as they're backed up by references to people. (p.57)
Summary
Don't forget that everybody, including yourself, has only his own experience to think with.
Detach your ideas from words.
Translate the abstract and general into the concrete and specific.
Problem solving
First step is a thorough study of the problem situation
Next (either simultaneously or one after the other), find the factor that can be moved or changed. Focus on this key factor and "pry it loose," and search your memory for a pattern that would fit the situation. Think of patterns that are usually not applied to this sort of problem. (p.91-2)
From Wertheimer: One must first forget what he happens to wish before he can get susceptible to what the situation itself requires. This transition is one of the great moments in many genuine thought processes. Real thinkers forget about themselves in thinking. Not only that, real thinkers can detach their minds from habitual, established patterns of thought and apply far removed, seemingly unrelated mental frameworks. their mind doesn't move in narrow grooves but ranges over a wide area of possible patterns.
Summary
Don't apply general rules blindly to specific problems
Look for a seemingly irrelevant key factor in the situation.
Look for a seemingly unsuitable pattern in your mind. (p.100)
Asking questions
What am I trying to accomplish?
Have I done this sort of thing before? How?
Could I do this some other way?
How did other people tackle this?
What kind of person or persons am I dealing with?
How can this situation be changed to fit me?
How can I adapt myself to this situation?
How about using more? Less? All of it? Only a portion? One only? Two? Several?
How about using something else? Something older? Something newer? Something more expensive? Something cheaper?
How near? How far? In what direction?
How soon? How often? Since when? For how long?
Could I do this in combination? With whom? With what?
How about doing the opposite?
What would happen if I did nothing? (p.118-9)
Summary
Narrow the field of solutions by asking questions
On statistics
Averages are just one point on the curve. Statistical view gives you a pretty realistic picture of what the world is like. We are all apt to assume that the good, the bad, and the medium are fairly evenly distributed; but this is wrong. The bell-shaped "normal curve" shows that ordinarily there are more medium cases than either good or bad ones , and there are always some that are very good or very bad.
Don't rely on a single instance, or even a few. You need lots of cases to establish a fact — not as true, but as highly probable. One case is nothing; ten cases are nothing. A thousand cases? Maybe they show a trend.
Even if it were possible to assemble a thousand cases to prove a point, you're apt to run into errors and mistakes. The larger the figures, the larger the sources of error.
It's almost impossible to get a random sample. (p. 130-2)
On correlation
Vary one thing at a time, and make a note of all you do. Ex. If the light in a lamp goes out, you first get another bulb: you vary one factor, keeping everything else constant. If the new bulb works, you're satisfied you've found the cause of the light going out. If it doesn't, you vary other factors, one at a time: you try another plug, you change a fuse, and so on.
Often we do this without experimenting; you see that a change in one factor is accompanied by a certain effect, and you think you've discovered the cause. It may work — sometimes; or it may not. Since you didn't set up the experiment, you can't control anything; and the effect may have been produced by a million reasons you don't know of. (p.133)
Correlation coefficients look like percentages but they're not. +1 means perfect correlation: if x happens, y always happens too. -1 means a perfect negative correlation: if x happens, y never happens. Zero means no correlation whatever: if x happens, y may or may not happen, you can't tell.
The following examples of looking at the correlation coefficients of age and value give you a picture of where you can get off: +.90: value regularly increases with age (e.g. wine); +.45: value often increases with age (e.g. paintings); .00: value has nothing to do with age ( e.g. diamonds); - .45: value often decreases with age (e.g. houses); -.95: value regularly decreases with age (e.g. news) (p.134-5)
Remember that bright ideas are often wrong and must be tested.
Don't underrate the influence of chance. (p.138)
Stages of thought
Definition of the problem: write it down, translate the problem into plain English, if possible, translate the problem into figures, mathematical symbols or graphs. (p.148)
Preparation: don't rely on your memory but use written or printed sources, take notes from your sources and develop a system to retrieve them. (p.143)
Discussion: to shape your thoughts, exchange ideas with others. Try groups of more than 2 and less than 10. Keep the talk on the subject; let every one contribute something; take notes of what has been said, don't forget to sum up once in a while; don't be afraid of pauses, and most importantly — when you're not talking, listen. (p.144)
Ask questions: use a check list, but don't stick to a set list of classifications. Vary the order; add new categories. (p.145)
Turn the problem upside down: Are you dealing with a general rule, a proverbial truth, a basic principle? Remember what George Santayana said: "Almost every wise saying has an opposite one, no less wise, to balance it."
Don't be afraid of the ridiculous: Alfred North Whitehead wrote: "Almost all really new ideas have a certain aspect of foolishness when they are first produced." There's a good reason for that. Problems are often solved by looking at things in a seemingly unsuitable pattern. There's something funny about such a sudden shift of focus. (p.146)
Incubation: where you let something besides the conscious mind do the work of synthesis. You may get frustrated, don't worry: it's natural. Relax, ... give it some time. As long as your working frantically to find a solution, your unconscious doesn't have a chance. Do something else. If you have to solve a problem, turn away from it for a time and attend to some other routine matter. Above all, be sure you have time to think. Don't clutter your day with a lot of details. Free yourself of trivial work. Shut out interruptions. Spend some time by yourself. [Find out what time of day is best for your creative pursuits]. (p.145-8)
Moment of insight: the birth of the idea. When you get an idea, write it down.
Elaboration: verify that your idea is correct, shape and develop your idea to practical usefulness.
Excerpts and addended from: "The Art of Clear Thinking by Rudolph Fleisch"
Copyright 2001, Winer Foundation and Robert I. Winer, M.D.
Thinking and memory
All thinking manipulates memories. Even inspirations are show on your experience and nothing else. All memories are more or less distorted. Your brain registers experience differently from everybody else's.
Abstract and concrete
First, I'll describe "concrete" objects, which refer to things having a material integrity, for example a "chair." A concrete object may be specific, but not abstract. For example, "my chair is blue and differs from your red chair." A concrete word's meaning doesn't vary with the language you use. A "chair" is a "chair" regardless of what country you are in. And though the American John Doe is called Johannes Hertzel in Germany, he's the same person. Numbers, dates and calendar words are all concrete words as are gender words or words that point to one specific person (I, you, he, she, your, his, her). All word forms made more specific by a concrete word are also concrete, such as "Joe's idea," though "idea" is an abstract word.
Abstract ideas come by removing a content from its context or background leaving one to focus on something that was not before seen. These ideas must include two or more memories having some commonality or similarity.
All other words are abstract. Ex. (concrete words put in italics) You've heard it said that we must protect our freedom lest it be lost. ... For freedom isn't delicate — it's a tough, old bird. Freedom has always been, and is today, the source of America's strength.
Abstract concepts are powerful tools for thinking as long as they're backed up by references to people. (p.57)
Summary
Don't forget that everybody, including yourself, has only his own experience to think with.
Detach your ideas from words.
Translate the abstract and general into the concrete and specific.
Problem solving
First step is a thorough study of the problem situation
Next (either simultaneously or one after the other), find the factor that can be moved or changed. Focus on this key factor and "pry it loose," and search your memory for a pattern that would fit the situation. Think of patterns that are usually not applied to this sort of problem. (p.91-2)
From Wertheimer: One must first forget what he happens to wish before he can get susceptible to what the situation itself requires. This transition is one of the great moments in many genuine thought processes. Real thinkers forget about themselves in thinking. Not only that, real thinkers can detach their minds from habitual, established patterns of thought and apply far removed, seemingly unrelated mental frameworks. their mind doesn't move in narrow grooves but ranges over a wide area of possible patterns.
Summary
Don't apply general rules blindly to specific problems
Look for a seemingly irrelevant key factor in the situation.
Look for a seemingly unsuitable pattern in your mind. (p.100)
Asking questions
What am I trying to accomplish?
Have I done this sort of thing before? How?
Could I do this some other way?
How did other people tackle this?
What kind of person or persons am I dealing with?
How can this situation be changed to fit me?
How can I adapt myself to this situation?
How about using more? Less? All of it? Only a portion? One only? Two? Several?
How about using something else? Something older? Something newer? Something more expensive? Something cheaper?
How near? How far? In what direction?
How soon? How often? Since when? For how long?
Could I do this in combination? With whom? With what?
How about doing the opposite?
What would happen if I did nothing? (p.118-9)
Summary
Narrow the field of solutions by asking questions
On statistics
Averages are just one point on the curve. Statistical view gives you a pretty realistic picture of what the world is like. We are all apt to assume that the good, the bad, and the medium are fairly evenly distributed; but this is wrong. The bell-shaped "normal curve" shows that ordinarily there are more medium cases than either good or bad ones , and there are always some that are very good or very bad.
Don't rely on a single instance, or even a few. You need lots of cases to establish a fact — not as true, but as highly probable. One case is nothing; ten cases are nothing. A thousand cases? Maybe they show a trend.
Even if it were possible to assemble a thousand cases to prove a point, you're apt to run into errors and mistakes. The larger the figures, the larger the sources of error.
It's almost impossible to get a random sample. (p. 130-2)
On correlation
Vary one thing at a time, and make a note of all you do. Ex. If the light in a lamp goes out, you first get another bulb: you vary one factor, keeping everything else constant. If the new bulb works, you're satisfied you've found the cause of the light going out. If it doesn't, you vary other factors, one at a time: you try another plug, you change a fuse, and so on.
Often we do this without experimenting; you see that a change in one factor is accompanied by a certain effect, and you think you've discovered the cause. It may work — sometimes; or it may not. Since you didn't set up the experiment, you can't control anything; and the effect may have been produced by a million reasons you don't know of. (p.133)
Correlation coefficients look like percentages but they're not. +1 means perfect correlation: if x happens, y always happens too. -1 means a perfect negative correlation: if x happens, y never happens. Zero means no correlation whatever: if x happens, y may or may not happen, you can't tell.
The following examples of looking at the correlation coefficients of age and value give you a picture of where you can get off: +.90: value regularly increases with age (e.g. wine); +.45: value often increases with age (e.g. paintings); .00: value has nothing to do with age ( e.g. diamonds); - .45: value often decreases with age (e.g. houses); -.95: value regularly decreases with age (e.g. news) (p.134-5)
Remember that bright ideas are often wrong and must be tested.
Don't underrate the influence of chance. (p.138)
Stages of thought
Definition of the problem: write it down, translate the problem into plain English, if possible, translate the problem into figures, mathematical symbols or graphs. (p.148)
Preparation: don't rely on your memory but use written or printed sources, take notes from your sources and develop a system to retrieve them. (p.143)
Discussion: to shape your thoughts, exchange ideas with others. Try groups of more than 2 and less than 10. Keep the talk on the subject; let every one contribute something; take notes of what has been said, don't forget to sum up once in a while; don't be afraid of pauses, and most importantly — when you're not talking, listen. (p.144)
Ask questions: use a check list, but don't stick to a set list of classifications. Vary the order; add new categories. (p.145)
Turn the problem upside down: Are you dealing with a general rule, a proverbial truth, a basic principle? Remember what George Santayana said: "Almost every wise saying has an opposite one, no less wise, to balance it."
Don't be afraid of the ridiculous: Alfred North Whitehead wrote: "Almost all really new ideas have a certain aspect of foolishness when they are first produced." There's a good reason for that. Problems are often solved by looking at things in a seemingly unsuitable pattern. There's something funny about such a sudden shift of focus. (p.146)
Incubation: where you let something besides the conscious mind do the work of synthesis. You may get frustrated, don't worry: it's natural. Relax, ... give it some time. As long as your working frantically to find a solution, your unconscious doesn't have a chance. Do something else. If you have to solve a problem, turn away from it for a time and attend to some other routine matter. Above all, be sure you have time to think. Don't clutter your day with a lot of details. Free yourself of trivial work. Shut out interruptions. Spend some time by yourself. [Find out what time of day is best for your creative pursuits]. (p.145-8)
Moment of insight: the birth of the idea. When you get an idea, write it down.
Elaboration: verify that your idea is correct, shape and develop your idea to practical usefulness.
Excerpts and addended from: "The Art of Clear Thinking by Rudolph Fleisch"
Copyright 2001, Winer Foundation and Robert I. Winer, M.D.
